Really surprised how large the grains are. Also I didn't expect them to be organized so neatly in the bags.

I worked as a Chemist at the Naval Ordnance Station, Indian Head MD in the late 60’s. This is where the propellant for the NJ was made. We tested every batch to make sure it was in spec. I got a chance to go to Dahlgren VA. to watch test firing to measure the “force/power”of every batch to make adjustments for range. It was shot at 45 and 0 degrees through wire loops to measure the speed of the projectile. When I got there,they were firing 5” guns and I thought that was unbelievable on how loud they where and how everything shook. Then they put 6 bags of powder into the 16” gun after the shell which weighed about 2200 lb. When that was fired, it made the 5” gun sound like a .22 round in comparison. The noise was deafening and it lifted dirt off the ground everywhere. I also got a chance,with binoculars to watch the 0 degree shot skip down the Potomac like someone skipping a rock. What a day!!

You do a great job, Ryan. Don’t sweat looking at notes occasionally, we don’t expect that you memorize every script. 👍👍👍

I love Ryan's nonchalant presentations, it's like he turned up for work having forgotten it was video day, I love the laid back approach, a refreshing change from most American TV Presenters, Ryan's approach seems to be listen to the information that's the important bit not what I look like.

I watched her shoot just north of DA Nang one night. What a show---horizon flash, three red dots overhead to land, rumble from the guns then the landing rumble. I was aboard ship so we saw it all and what a sight it was!

When he says "tare layer" he's referring to the word _"tare"_ as in the _tare weight_ of the bag. So, tare layer, is the layer of propellent laid on it's side to bring the whole thing to your tare weight. Hope that helps if anyone was wondering!

The powder plant in question was near Memphis Tennessee. Early on, my father was called to appear at the draft board and get a pre-induction physical. Because he was one of the few in line who could read and write, they asked him to go first, so the others would have confidence. At the end of the process, he met with a committee of three officers. One turned to the others saying "Looks shaky to me. What do you think?" The other two agreed: "Shaky" Shaky." The officer in charge stamped my father's papers 4F. Apparently he was only one of a couple dozen people in the country who knew the smokeless powder process well enough to run a powder plant. So he led a battalion sized crew of old men, wives, girlfriends and fiances of servicemen for five years. During that time, his crew experienced casualties comparable to a combat battalion.

My Father was in charge of a smokeless gunpowder plant during WWII. I inherited some samples including a grain from the battleship Missouri. Relax, I have since disposed of the samples. The reason for the 7 holes was so that as the gunpowder burned, the surface area would remain relatively constant. Burning from the outside would reduce the surface area. Burning from inside each of the 7 holes would increase the surface area. So the two would balance out. An important concern was that the burn would finish just as the round left the end of the barrel. This served to avoid wasting powder and it also served to reduce the size of the muzzle flash.

This dude is EXTREMELY knowledgeable. He isn't reading off anything, and he has to think sometimes. Very impressive stuff

Other than basic training I did my entire Army tour in a field artillery battery, a year of that in Viet Nam. It was an 8"/175mm battery so had separate loading ammunition. Powder grains look to be similar in size but our had larger holes, IIRC. I tried burning a few grains to heat up C rations but the fire was too intense and short lived. Our powder increments came packed in one round cans with 6 increments of white bag and 3 of green bag, with only the base increment having the red igniter pad. We had a lot of powder increments unused, these disposed of by burning. We lost a jeep and trailer when the burning got out of hand and ignited a trailer full of powder. The 175 mm gun used over 90 lbs of powder as a full charge, which placed a dangerous stress on the tube ( field artillery calls the barrel the "tube") so the gun crew dismounts the piece and a 50 lanyard is used to fire it. Even then we lost a man when a tube ruptured. 300 full charge rounds was the limit for the 175, 6000 rounds for the 8". At one time we were changing 175 tubes every day or so, more often than I changed socks. Thanks for the great presentation, Ryan.

"as this slowly burns in the blink of an eye" NICE. Loving your vids cheers.

As a chemist, I love that Ryan nailed all the major points of the chemical production

I appreciate the fact you bring notes to speak accurately. Thanks for all the hard work you and your team do. This channel is awesome.

The word you were looking for the extremely rapid burning of the propellant grains is Deflagration. In one of the USS Massachusetts videos the gunner's mate said that they recorded the lot numbers of the powder and made an effort to use all the same lot number for each particular gunnery shoot. This was to gather data so they could adjust the fire control solution for the slightly different projectile velocity for each given lot of propellant. As another video idea would be to just do a video on all the different variables that had to be cranked into the fire control computer to achieve the impressive accuracy. Not just range, speed and course of the target, but things like air temperature, wind speed, humidity, and even the ships latitude and longitude to compensate for the rotation of the earth while the shell was in the air.

Crazy how precise they could be seeing as how factory ammunition in small arms vary in the 20s-30s fps for decent ammo.

I was a Marine in Vietnam. I saw her firing off the coast south of Da Nang in '68. The rounds sound like they say. A Railroad train passing overhead.

83.0gr by weight in a 375 H&H. Does anyone else want a couple of those granules of propellant for their reloading bench? Ryan, great job on explaining how gun cotton was manufactured and produced. It was explained simply and clearly enough for the average person to have a fundamental understanding of the process.

Now, as a longtime fan of Forgotten Weapons, now that you've talked about the Powder and the Shells - does that mean next weeks video will be you taking it out to the range and shooting it? (P.S. the correct answer is 'yes')

5fps+/- on average is incredible, I'd have thought it'd be much more than that since small arm variance is in the double digit range it seems

Nice. You correctly referred to it as gun propellant vs gun powder. Yet more evidence that Ryan has an engineering background. Lots of nitrocellulose and cordite...not much powder ever since cannonballs were phased out.

I found this video to be the most interesting one yet. They are all good, but I guess this is where my primary interest lies. Thank you, Ryan.

ES(extreme spread) and SD(standard deviation) are super critical in Long Range shooting. I work up loads with both in the single digits. This builds consistent impact points at the target. Barring wind and shooter error.

Thank you for taking on this topic. There are two areas that you missed that I think were very important during WWII. The first was flash suppression for night battles. The British, learned from Jutland, that battleship main batteries could draw attention to themselves, or even light up supporting smaller vessels with flash from the big rifles. The British developed a "low flash" powder and made effective use of it in night engagements. After learning that the Japanese preferred to engage at night at Guadalcanal, there was a scramble for "low flash" propellant by the Americans. It was probably more urgently sought than even to replace the Mark 6 magnetic exploder for torpedoes. What were the changes to propellant that made it "low flash"? What were the sacrifices in performance and shelf life of "low flash" propellants? I have heard that changes in tactics were also made so screening destroyers would not get "flashed" by battleships behind them in night actions like stopping Southern Force at Leyte. Secondly, I have heard that the Japanese used colored smoke trails from battleship salvos to identify it from others in the fleet for correction purposes. How was a smoke trail accomplished? Engineering and chemistry? Did the Americans have similar use of colored smoke? What were the different colors of Iowa and New Jersey at Truk (Operation Hailstone 17 Feb 1944)?

When the powder bags was being made, they had to use brass sewing needles to close them up. They couldnt use any sewing machines for fear of igniting the powder, but sadly some did. Great work on how they were made. PS I would love to find the numbers for the depot at my home town.

Finally a look inside the bag

we found these grains on the beach in panama, Howard AFB. All us kids collected them with the sea shell's my sisters used them as salt and pepper shakers when playing house

1:33 In engineering we call it "Incomplete deflagration to detonation transition" (IDDT). It's desirable to have a _FAST_ burn in a gun but definitely not supersonic fast. The largest charge I've personally fired is a .375 H&H, stunningly powerful for a shoulder fired rifle.

Thank you Ryan. Great explanation!

The largest charge I've fired was for the M107, 175mm Self Propelled Artillery gun, while in the USMC. The shell weighed 147 pounds and the maximum charge was 58 pounds of bagged powder with a range of 21 miles. The largest shell was from the M110A1, 8" Self Propelled Artillery gun. This shell weighed 200 pounds, but the powder charge was only 50 pounds with a range of 18 miles. Interesting side note, the M110 also had a nuclear shell available for use during the cold war. Our crew had a member that was certified to arm and handle the nuke, that was a special MOS 0812.

The knowledge that’s in this guys head is quite amazing. He’s kinda like the Jack-of-all-trades of all battleship curators.

When I was on active duty in Uncle Sam's Canoe Club as a Seabee the largest weapon system I got to fire was the M203 attachment to my M-16, it's a little bit smaller physically and the pressures it developed were probably somewhat lower than the 16"/50 cal. All bad jokes aside, I wish you guys would consider putting up a crowd funding site so we can send you on a trip overseas to other floating museums, get a cool private tour with camera crew. It would be fun to physically see the technology progression. My number one suggestion would be the IJN Mikasa in Japan, not only is it the last British built battleship anywhere in the world but it's a pre Dreadnought battleship, so the contrast in what counted as state of the art in its design and manufacture would be awesome. And that doesn't even touch on the cool history the Mikasa as the flagship during the Battle of Tsushima. Just thinking out loud, please give it some thought.

I was a Gunners Mate{E-6} on the USCGC Duane, sister ship of the USCGC Taney. So I shot many full service 5'38 rounds. I also have one of the last 2 short charges fired when we decommissioned the Duane in 1985. I was part of the decommissioning crew and we were told to fire the short charges as opposed to turning them in when we off loaded the rest of the ammo.

Today, I learned a lot about something I always wondered about! These videos and Mr. Ryan’s lectures are most enjoyable.

I bet you could 3D print some inert grains of propellant and sell them in the gift shop. Unique and probably inexpensive souvenir.

I've always liked the way that Ryan explains things thoroughly, but not loaded down with techno-speak, so as to make things difficult to understand. In particular, this video was very informative and entertaining. Good job.

Fired over our heads in I corps 1969. The sound going overhead was frightening, the results down range were awesome. Always wondered what a high cap round with a proximity fuse (airburst) would have done to any ground target.

just was reading about the explosion on the Iowa On 19 April 1989, due to a overram of powder bags ."The team determined that the "tare" or "trim" layer (a small amount of powder placed at the end of each bag to equalize the bag's weight, inserted in the mid-1980s when the powder was mixed and rebagged under Miceli's direction) would often ignite when compressed at high speed. Cooper found that the burning fragments did not ignite adjacent powder in the same bag, but instead would burn through the bag material and ignite the adjacent bag's black powder patch and thereby ignite the rest of the bags."

I’m so glad I stumbled across this video as a child I found a large metal case full of these in the woods and of course I took them home and experimented with them for years how crazy

Man! Can you imagine the arms of these men who had to roll or try to pick these things up in a rapid pace during a fight? Must have been some really strong dogs back then. Respect!

Back in the 80's, I was dispatched by my company to a US Arsenal in Virginia to commission a new polythene extrusion operation. The extruder was to operate in a unassuming wood shed in the middle of some very ominous looking bunkers and revetments. I was told about some self-controlled cargo carts that I might see operating very slowly on the narrow roadways and to immediately move off the road entirely if I saw one heading my way and turn off my engine and stop all electrical activity or RF emissions. I took this very seriously - it was easy to guess that the cargo carts and bunkers contained things that got very angry if poked. The end use of my product was briefed to be for the 16" gun propellant packages in some otherwise unexplained way but described here at 3:00. Being prior military myself, I did not question the end use or application as I had no need to know. But now I know what I had a part of making. PS: The place was like a well manicured nature park, in fact there were some magnificent bucks wandering around. No hunting was allowed - obviously.

I have shot many 1 to 1 1/4 pound loads of black powder charges though 2, 12 pound Napoleons and 3/4 to 1 pound loads though 2 different 6 pound civil war era guns, all cast in 1864 in Cincinnati, Ohio while a member of Battery A, 1st Ohio Light Artillery. It was an awesome unit to re-enact with from Columbus, Ohio.

In 1967 my next door neighbor would buy 50lb kegs of surplus 20MM powder. He used it for handloading many popular rifle calibers. 3006, 243, 220 swift etc... It would shoot fantastic groups at a few dollars per pound!!

This was an extremely interesting and informative presentation that got right to the point and covered most of the technical questions. Excellent.

Just wanted to comment that you've inspired me to do a warship binge. I've just come back from visiting Patriot's Point (Yorktown and Laffey), USS North Carolina, and USS Wisconsin. Keep up the great work!

Gotta lot of respect that you read the procedure for making nitrocellulose off a card. I'll take correct info over slick presentation any day. Just to clarify though, the perforations in the powder grains allow for even burning after ignition. For example, if there were no perforations and the grain was ignited, the burning would take place over the entire external area of the grain alone releasing an initial amount of gas. As it burns away, however, the area of the cylinder becomes less reducing the amount of gas produced the longer it burns. The perforations provide for the grain to burn inward and outward at the same time so the perforations get wider as they burn just like the outer diameter gets smaller, creating a balanced burning. Generally, powder grains for weapons below 40mm have one perforation down the center while 16-inch gun propellant grains have seven as demonstrated in this video. One ctiticism though, the internal pressure doesn't immediately start to go down as soon as the powder is ignited. The shell is moving down the barrel while the powder is still not all consumed. In fact, a consequence of priming the back of the rear bag means that as pressure is building unburned or still burning powder grains are being pushed up the barrel behind the shell. There is a point at which pressure begins to drop as gas generation can't keep up with the volume of the barrel behind the shell, but it's not immediate. You can find out more about this subject in the 1957 Naval Ordnance and Gunnery Volume I, Chapter 6, Section C _Gun Barrels and Interior Ballistics_ eugeneleeslover.com/US-NAVY-BOOKS/1-NO-10797-A-CHAPTER-6.html

Great video. Always enjoy the content. My wife is a museum professional, so I can relate to a lot of the issues you face. Keep up the excellent work.

What a great informative video! This topic was one that I've wondered about for years. I was a tank crewman in the Army and we only dealt with 90 mm rounds. Keep up the good work!

Loving these videos, I hope you dont worry about us caring about you looking at note cards. You cover so much its incredible and im sure barely anyone else would even know where to start

Dracinifel discussed the efforts at remixing in a video once. The results were less than stellar. It resulted in charges that could vary by 30% from ombre shot to the next. Identical shots had effect variance of as much as 600 meters. Imagine taking the same aim twice and missing the same spot by a quarter mile.

Extrusion is the technical term when you’re pushing material through a die.

The perforations are to increase the burn rate of the powder. They increase surface area of the grain that is burning. You can tailor also design the perforations to generate a specific pressure curve, depending on the shape and locations of the perforations and how this develops as the propellant burns.

The turret explosion in USS Iowa was during a 5 bag D-846 w/2600lb practice shell experiment. Everything I have read said it was not officially sanctioned by NAVSEA.

Ryan, your presentation has come a long way!!!! that was/is an excellent explanation.. I was trying to explain grain size and the like to my son ( For my BP cannon) and ill have to admit you have done a better job than my attempt and so therefore his homework is - to watch this episode and then explain propellant grain fundamentals to me!!!! So thanks for helping Charlie boy understand in a way that I know will stick in his head. The whole reason we have kids I think, to teach them stuff!!!!!!! ( so we can then show them they have a long way to go to beat Dad!!!!!!!)

I love this channel. This delves so deep into the inter workings of these old warships. Soooo coool!

Incredibly detailed info. Bravo!

I know that things don't work this way, but I keep thinking about a low boy trailer carrying a set of Hornady reloading dies, a box car load of Sierra ballistic tip bullets (and the fork lift to move them) and a dump truck full of Hogdon powder. As usual, everybody will be out of stock on the super large super magnum rile primers.

You really communicated your extensive knowledge of the subject well! Even I understood it. Just a little tip from someone whose been in the film and video business for a long time... Get used to looking at the camera lens until you don't think of the glass but of the one guy who is hanging on every word you say. Treat the camera like somebody else just standing there chatting with you. You really need to practice this... it doesn't come easily sometimes, but if you can avoid glancing away from the camera, you'll appear more comfortable and natural. Great work on this amazing ship! Thanks for a great channel!

As a precision rifle shooter +/- 5fps is AMAZING. I would have assumed 100fps but thats amazingly tight quality control for the guns/primers/shells/powder

I am glad to see these videos are getting good amount of views and that they continue to be made. This type of history shouldnt be lost to time.

In reading about Iowa class battleships, the literature often mentions "dumped" versus "stacked". I think you explained that the practice rounds were "dumped" while the service rounds were "stacked". The books seemed to have extensive tables of "dumped" and "stacked" with associated ranges and muzzle velocities leading me to believe there were multiple uses for these two terms. So the "dumped" grains are just randomly oriented in a bag, while the "stacked" are aligned end to end. Am I understanding this correctly?

I read that Yamato’s gun barrels were only rated for about 100 full-charge shots. Every time it shot its guns in anger, it cost 1% of the ship’s useful life.

I love these kinds of details. I have always had a love for the technology put into large naval guns.

The Royal Navy switched to Cordite N a triple base propellant in WWII by adding Nitroguanidine to Cordite, this reduce muzzle flash and increased barrel life by lowering the temperature of the shot due to the massive amout on nitrogen produce by the Nitroguanidine when heated, some modern artillery still uses this triple base propellant

One of my favorite channels, I know your busy but I'd love more recess and void space exploration!

I remember watching another KZfaq video on how this stuff was made. The propellant gets extruded in the final step of the process and looks a lot like Tootsie Rolls (except that eating one would definitely be contraindicated).

Fantastic job, Ryan. Your videos seem to get better and better. Keep doing what you're doing.

Very well done. I believe they did a shoot into Lebanon on morning news TV once. It was some distance away, the flash, boom reached the camera at different times. I was around middle teens by then. Not much for shooting except a couple of confederate enfields in living history and a few artillery here and there but nothing that would hold up to this level of knowledge and precision present in this wonderful video. I was told by a relative years ago that there was a battleship support off Korea and I have not been able to find much on it. Story goes the ship was shooting at 2000 yards enemy danger close from miles away. The description used by the relative was the sound of manifest high speed boxcar trains of that era rumbling over then the thump with a small pause before the kaboom. Im not much personally, just a old trucker who will die one and frankly followed the artillery in all its forms most of my life and its very good to sit quietly with a coffee pot and soak in this information at this stage in my life. The United States started off with I think DuPont up in the Brandywine Valley near Philly and worked out wards from there. I will share that I witnessed first hand a place near Hawthorne Nevada walker lake once or twice where theres a valley of about 20 miles by 40 if not bigger as the eye can see of storage bunkers maybe 600 yards apart. That at one time in WW2 was the stockpile for the entire Pacific. Ive been told its since closed and no longer in use. So I am the last one to know anything more. I will share that I have been into Remington Arms which is a small arms plant in Arkansas for delivery of Ready Mix Concrete that they would order at one time or another for a little bit here and a little bit there and so on. As they were actively making the powder or propellent in those woods back there I was taught one rule. Red Light stop and stay. Mr Red Light dictates that no one moves until its off for reasons. So... it was a small experience but memorable. Working for Dowdy in Batesville we eventually run Brass Coil Sheets into that plant on the front end docks to be made into small arms rounds. Those brass coils were loaded up in Buffalo NY across from Canada there. There was a foundry there. Its alot of writing for a late night but little tidbits here and there and so on. Aberdeen Ordance Museum had at one time or another a 16 inch naval gun similar if not the same model as the Battleships. So standing in it's tub and consider dealing with it is something. Anzio Annie was something to compare it to. I think they moved it out long ago. Probably to Virginia. I look forward to more of these wonderful videos.

Holy cow, you guys are at 61k subs now, you had like 30k a few months ago. I swear I remember seeing like 25k on your channel.

Love what y'all are doing, don't worry so much about the note card, I need one to spell my name some days.

Ryan you are truly an amazing curator. It never ceases to amaze me how you are so descriptive and inclusive in all your presentations. I always lament missing some of them. I was wondering if you ever did one on the manufacturing of the powder bags or where they were manufactured and how. Thanks again you are a joy to us battleship lovers.

Another great video Ryan. You are a very good teacher of history. Many thanks.

Biggest charge you ask? 48 grains of IMR 4064 in a 30-06. Somehow, I suspect one could load a few dozen 30-06 size cartridges with the weight of just one grain from those 16" / 50 charges.

Biggest charge I've ever personally fired is M2/M33 ball .50BMG from a ship-mounted Browning M2 machine gun. Nothing that special, though it *is* a *lot* of fun.

Several decades ago I worked with a retired USN officer who said that he had a professor at the Academy who had a cane made from propellant extrusion. Apparently the prof liked to whack it on objects to show that it was stable.

I was in a mortar unit in the Army. Our cheese charges were bad enough. I can't imagine how lethal these things must be.

I was a Quartermaster in the Navy in the late 90's. I'd like to see a video on the Chart room.

Hey Ryan man, does your 2 pound charge count if there's no projectile? =) just playing Devil's advocate haha

Thank you for the very detailed and technical explanations!

In the early to mid 80s I remember these shells and powder charges coming through NWS Charleston for S&I. Train car after train car. I was absolutely amazed at the size of these shells and charges.

I was a bit surprised they used silk for the bags. I thought silk was in short supply in WW2. Presumably silk must offer some advantage to be used rather than something cheap like cotton canvas. I wonder what the advantage is?

I have a question, how do you flood a ships powder magazine, I know a lot of ships would do so if they had revived a hit and did not want to risk a magazine explosion, what did that entail? Is it just automatically spraying down the powder bag storage or is the magazine literally filled with water?

For a technical explanation of the Iowa explosion in turret # 2 I recommend reading the book " Explosion aboard the Iowa " by Dr. Richard L. Schwoebel of Sandia National Laboratories . He and his team were hired by the Senate Armed Services Committee to investigate the incident of April 19, 1989 on the Iowa.

As a teenager (in 1963) I owned and shot a vintage flintlock Charleville musket. I loaded a .64" round ball (+-450 grains) over 190 grains of FFg and each time wondered why I was doing that?? The only recoil mitigation system was my shoulder and it didn't work that well... Thanks for the very detailed description of how the grains were laid in the bag, I would have had not idea! Your videos are always informative and engaging.

I didn't realize the grains were so big. I've seen the grains used in common rifle cartridges such as .223 or .30-'06 and they look pretty similar except they are tiny. A 2" long grain, yikes!

The pressure peaks and then doesn't drop until the shell leaves the barrel. There is propellant burning the entire time even after the shell leaves the barrel. Thats why there is a large fireball that leaves the gun. Propellant is still burning in the open air. Also the shorter barrel doesnt increase the speed of the shell. The shorter barrels needed a faster burning propellant because it has a shorter amount of time to build pressure while the shell was still in the barrel. A perfect load has its charge fully burnt right ass the shell leaves the barrel. If you burn up to fast you will get a slower round speed also if you burn to slow youll throw some of your load out and get a slower round.

Learned a lot from this video, I guess I shouldn't have been surprised; giant rifles need giant grains of propellant. The additives to extend barrel life was very cool, I had no idea such a thing even existed. Fascinating! Cheers to you all.

There have been questions on two safety issues with the forty year old powder bags in the battleships returned to service; 1) whether the “fine tuning” for increasing range exceeded safety parameters. 2) whether the storage un air conditioned barges effected the powder’s stability. The point being the questions of whether unsafe practices caused the infamous turret explosion aboard USS Iowa in 1989. Followed up by blaming one guns mate who was allegedly suicidal.

Yay! More gun stuff!

71.5 gr of H4831 out of my 300 Win Mag is the largest amount of powder that I personally have used , the scale size of each grain of powder is amazing ! I thought it would be same size as rifle powder , just a Helluva lot more ! I was WRONG ! 😳

I was on the shell deck of Turret 3, so technically, the most I've ever fired was probably the 330 lb charge. The higher charges were mostly right out of service by the plankowners. Apparently, there was a firing of a 5-charge of D-846 and one D845 and got some more range (and a thorough chewing out of Seaquist by the Navy), but that was before my time and not my turret.

Another good video. Had a nice talk with a veteran who served in the USS Iowa during the Korean War.

Drachinifel has an interview with the captain of the Iowa. In it he talks about exactly how accurate they got. They could put every shell on the grass of a soccer field.

I remember the Navy smearing & scape-goating Clayton Hartwig after the 1989 USS Iowa accident.

When I was in the Navy, the two ships I was on, a destroyer and a frigate, we had 5 inch guns. I used to love the gun shoots!

This is so well presented. Many thanks 👍

The navy should have kept the battleship and used rocket propelled shells.

Buff HE! Nerf Concealment of DD's!

Those holes in the grains do more than ensuring an even burn, they actually cause the powder to burn at an accelerating rate as the projectile gets further down the barrel....in doing so, the pressure in the barrel doesn't drop off as fast as it otherwise would. If the grains didn't have holes, then as the powder burns inward the burning surface area decreases causing a drop in gas release. By putting a single hole in the center, as the outside rate decreases the inside increases and the gas release remains constant. By putting many holes in it, the area inside which is burning increases much faster than the outside decreases, so the burn rate accelerates.

Awesome presentation. Thank you.

Well, now, all of us who have read that women couldn't have silk stalkings during WWII know why. The silk was being burned up in the barrels of our battleships.